DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON WOMEN
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON WOMEN
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON WOMEN
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON WOMEN
*Dr.N.V.S.SURYANARAYANA **NEELIMA VANGAPANDU ***GOTETI HIMABINDU ****N.SURYA KANTHI
INTRODUCTION:
Domestic violence, also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, child abuse or intimate partner violence (IPV), can be broadly defined as a pattern of abusive behaviors by one or both partners in an intimate relationship such as marriage, dating, family, friends or cohabitation. Domestic violence has many forms including physical aggression (hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, restraining, throwing objects), or threats thereof; sexual abuse; emotional abuse; controlling or domineering; intimidation; stalking; passive/covert abuse (e.g., neglect); and economic deprivation. Domestic violence may or may not constitute a crime, depending on local statues, severity and duration of specific acts, and other variables. Alcohol consumption and mental illness can be co-morbid with abuse and present additional challenges when present alongside patterns of abuse.
HISTORY:
The first attested use of the expression "domestic violence" in a modern context, meaning "spouse abuse, violence in the home" was in 1977.
Violence between spouses has long been considered a serious problem. The United States has a lengthy history of legal precedent condemning spousal abuse. In 1879, law scholar Nicholas St. John Green wrote, "The cases in the American courts are uniform against the right of the husband to use any [physical] chastisement, moderate or otherwise, toward the wife, for any purpose." Green also cites the 1641 Body of Liberties of the Massachusetts Bay colonists - one of the first legal documents in North American history - as an early de jure condemnation of violence by either spouse. Popular emphasis has tended to be on women as the victims of domestic violence. Many studies show that women suffer greater rates of injury due to domestic violence, and some studies show that women suffer higher rates of assault. Yet, other statistics show that while men tend to inflict injury at higher rates, the majority of domestic violence overall is reciprocal.
Modern attention to domestic violence began in the women's movement of the 1970s, particularly within feminism and women's rights, , as concern about wives being beaten by their husbands gained attention. Only since the late 1970s, and particularly in the masculism and men's movements of the 1990s, has the problem of domestic violence against men gained any significant attention. Estimates show that 248 of every 1,000 females and 76 of every 1,000 males are victims of physical assault and/or rape committed by their spouses. A 1997 report says significantly more men than women do not disclose the identity of their attacker. A 2009 study showed that there was greater acceptance for abuse perpetrated by females than by males.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY:
Violence in the domestic sphere is usually perpetrated by males who are, or who have been, in positions of trust and intimacy and power husbands, boyfriends, fathers, fathers-in-law, stepfathers, brothers, uncles, sons, or other relatives. Domestic violence is in most cases violence perpetrated by men against women. Women can also be violent, but their actions account for a small percentage of domestic violence. Violence against women is often a cycle of abuse that manifests itself in many forms throughout their lives (see Table 1). Even at the very beginning of her life, a girl may be the target of sex-selective abortion or female infanticide in cultures where son preference is prevalent.
During childhood, violence against girls may include enforced malnutrition, lack of access to medical care and education, incest, female genital mutilation. Early marriage, and forced prostitution or bonded labour. Some go on to suffer throughout their adult lives battered, raped and even murdered at the hands of intimate partners. Other crimes of violence against women include forced pregnancy, abortion or erilization, and harmful traditional practices such as dowry-related violence, sati (the burning of a widow on the funeral pyre of her husband), and killings in the name of honour. And in later life, widows and elderly women may also experience abuse.
While the impact of physical abuse may be more visible' than psychological scarring, repeated humiliation and insults, forced isolation, limitations on social mobility, constant threats of violence and injury, and denial of economic resources are more subtle and insidious forms of violence. The intangible nature of psychological abuse makes it harder to define and report, leaving the woman in a situation where she is often made to feel mentally destabilized and powerless.
Table 1 - Examples of Violence against Women
Throughout the Life Cycle
Phase
Type of violence
Pre-birth
Sex-selective abortion; effects of battering during pregnancy on birth outcomes.
Infancy
Female infanticide; physical, sexual and psychological abuse.
Girlhood
Child marriage; female genital mutilation; physical, sexual and
Psychological abuse; incest; child prostitution and pornography.
Adolescence and
Adulthood
Dating and courtship violence (e.g. acid throwing and date rape)
economically coerced sex (e.g. school girls having sex with "sugar daddies" in return for school fees); incest; sexual abuse in the workplace; rape; sexual harassment; forced prostitution and
pornography; trafficking in women; partner violence; marital rape; dowry abuse and murders; partner homicide; psychological abuse; Abuse of women with disabilities; forced pregnancy.
Elderly
Forced "suicide" or homicide of widows for economic reasons; sexual, Physical and psychological abuse.
DEFINITIONS:
The U. S. Office on Violence against Women (OVW) defines domestic violence as a "pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner". The definition adds that domestic violence "can happen to anyone regardless of race, age, sexual orientation, religion, or gender", and that it can take many forms, including physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional, economic, and psychological abuse.
The Children and Family Court Advisory and Support Service in the United Kingdom in its "Domestic Violence Policy" uses domestic violence to refer to a range of violent and abusive behaviours, defining it as: Patterns of behaviour characterized by the misuse of power and control by one person over another who are or have been in an intimate relationship. It can occur in mixed gender relationships and same gender relationships and has profound consequences for the lives of children, individuals, families and communities. It may be physical, sexual, emotional and/or psychological. The latter may include intimidation, harassment, damage to property, threats and financial abuse.
In Spain, the 2004 Measures of Integral Protection against Gendered Violence defined gendered violence as a violence that is directed at women for the very fact of being women. The law acknowledges that women are considered by their attackers as lacking the basic rights of freedom, respect, and decision making capability. The law established Courts of "Violence against Women" and suspended presumption of innocence for men accused of domestic violence. Spanish Courts are empowered to hold closed door hearings before trial and evict men from their homes; suspend parental rights, child custody, or visitation rights; and bar men from possessing weapons.
TYPES IN DOMESTIC VIOLENCE:
Physical abuse is abuse involving contact intended to cause feelings of intimidation, pain, injury, or other physical suffering or bodily harm. Physical abuse includes hitting, slapping, punching, choking, pushing, and other types of contact that result in physical injury to the victim. Physical abuse can also include behaviors such as denying the victim of medical care when needed, depriving the victim of sleep or other functions necessary to live, or forcing the victim to engage in drug/alcohol use against his/her will. It can also include inflicting physical injury onto other targets, such as children or pets, in order to cause psychological harm to the victim.
Sexual abuse is common in abusive relationships: The National Coalition Against Domestic Violence reports that between one-third and one-half of all battered women are raped by their partners at least once during their relationship. Any situation in which force is used to obtain participation in unwanted, unsafe, or degrading sexual activity constitutes sexual abuse. Forced sex, even by a spouse or intimate partner with whom consensual sex has occurred, is an act of aggression and violence. Furthermore, women whose partners abuse them physically and sexually are at a higher risk of being seriously injured or killed.
Categories of sexual abuse include:
Use of physical force to compel a person to engage in a sexual act against his or her will, whether or not the act is completed;
Attempted or completed sex act involving a person who is unable to understand the nature or condition of the act, unable to decline participation, or unable to communicate unwillingness to engage in the sexual act, e.g., because of underage immaturity, illness, disability, or the influence of alcohol or other drugs, or because of intimidation or pressure; and
Abusive sexual contact.
Emotional abuse (also called psychological abuse or mental abuse) can include humiliating the victim privately or publicly, controlling what the victim can and cannot do, withholding information from the victim, deliberately doing something to make the victim feel diminished or embarrassed, isolating the victim from friends and family, implicitly blackmailing the victim by harming others when the victim expresses independence or happiness, or denying the victim access to money or other basic resources and necessities.
Emotional abuse also includes conflicting actions or statements which are designed to confuse and create insecurity in the victim. These behaviors also lead the victim to question themselves, causing them to believe that they are making up the abuse or that the abuse is their fault. Emotional abuse includes forceful efforts to isolate the victim, keeping them from contacting friends or family. This is intended to eliminate others who might try to help them leave the relationship and to create a lack of resources available for them to rely on if they were to leave. Isolation also results in damaging the victim's sense of internal strength, leaving them feeling helpless and unable to escape from the situation.
Verbal abuse (also called reviling) is a form of abusive behavior involving the use of language. It is a form of profanity that can occur with or without the use of expletives. Whilst oral communication is the most common form of verbal abuse, it includes abusive words in written form.
Economic abuse is when the abuser has control over the victim's money and other economic resources. In its extreme (and usual) form, this involves putting the victim on a strict "allowance", withholding money at will and forcing the victim to beg for the money until the abuser gives them some money. It is common for the victim to receive less money as the abuse continues. This also includes preventing the victim from finishing education or obtaining employment, or intentionally squandering or misusing communal resources.
CAUSES:
There are many different theories as to the causes of domestic violence. These include psychological theories that consider personality traits and mental characteristics of the perpetrator, as well as social theories which consider external factors in the perpetrator's environment, such as family structure, stress, social learning.
Psychological:
In general, about 80% of both court-referred and self-referred men in these domestic violence studies exhibited diagnosable psychopathology, typically personality disorders. Estimates of personality disorder in the general population would be more in the 15-20% range. As violence becomes more severe and chronic, the likelihood of psychopathology in these men approaches 100%." Psychological theories focus on personality traits and mental characteristics of the offender. Personality traits include sudden bursts of anger, poor impulse control, and poor self-esteem. Various theories suggest that psychopathology and other personality disorders are factors, and that abuse experienced as a child leads some people to be more violent as adults.
Behavioral:
Behavioral theories of domestic violence focus on the use of functional assessment with the goal of reducing episodes of violence to zero rates. This program leads to behavior therapy. Often by identifying the antecedents and consequences of violent action, the abusers can be taught self control.
Social stress:
Violence is not always caused by stress, but may be one way that some (but not all) people respond to stress. Families and couples in poverty may be more likely to experience domestic violence, due to increased stress and conflicts about finances and other aspects. Some speculate that poverty may hinder a man's ability to live up to his idea of "successful manhood", thus he fears losing honor and respect.
Mental illness:
Psychiatric disorders are sometimes associated with domestic violence, like Borderline personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder, Bipolar disorder, Schizophrenia, Drug abuse and Alcoholism. In past medical knowledge, untreated Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder and Conduct disorder in childhood was associated with domestic violence in adulthood.
Gender roles and expectations can and do play a role in abusive situations, and exploring these roles and expectations can be helpful in addressing abusive situations, as do factors like race, class, religion, sexuality and philosophy. None of these factors cause one to abuse or another to be abused.
FACTORS: Various factors affecting the domestic violence on women.
Table 2 - Factors That Perpetuate Domestic Violence
Cultural
i. Gender-specific socialization
ii. Cultural definitions of appropriate sex roles
iii. Expectations of roles within relationships
iv. Belief in the inherent superiority of males
v. Values that give men proprietary rights over women and girls
vi. Notion of the family as the private sphere and under male control
vii. Customs of marriage (bride price/dowry)
Acceptability of violence as a means to resolve conflict
Economic
Women's economic dependence on men
Limited access to cash and credit
Discriminatory laws regarding inheritance, property rights, use of communal lands, and maintenance after divorce or widowhood
Limited access to employment in formal and informal sectors
Limited access to education and training for women
Legal
a) Lesser legal status of women either by written law and/or by practice
b) Laws regarding divorce, child custody, maintenance and inheritance
c) Legal definitions of rape and domestic abuse
d) Low levels of legal literacy among women
e) Insensitive treatment of women and girls by police and judiciary
Political
Under-representation of women in power, politics, the media and in the legal and medical professions
Domestic violence not taken seriously
Notions of family being private and beyond control of the state
Risk of challenge to status quo/religious laws
Limited organization of women as a political force
Limited participation of women in organized political system
STRATEGIES AND INTERVENTIONS:
Domestic violence is a complex problem and there is no one strategy that will work in all situations. To begin with, violence may take place within very different societal contexts, and the degree to which it is sanctioned by a community will naturally influence the kind of strategy needed. Considering the interconnections between the factors responsible for domestic violence gender dynamics of power, culture and economics strategies and interventions should be designed within a comprehensive and integrated framework. A multi-layered strategy that addresses the structural causes of violence against women while providing immediate services to victim-survivors ensures sustainability and is the only strategy that has the potential to eliminate this scourge. When planning strategies and interventions, there are a variety of stakeholders that should be borne in mind. Partnerships with these stakeholders can operate on several levels at once.
1. At the level of the family, the Stakeholders include women, men,Adolescents and children.
2. within the local community, partnerships have to be developed with traditional elders, religious leaders, Community-based groups, neighborhood, associations, men's groups (e.g.,village farmers' associations), local councils and village level bodies.
3. Within civil society, the range of partners include professional groups, women's and men's groups, NGOs, the private sector, the media, academia, and trade unions.
4. At the international level, thestakeholders include international organizations (such as the United Nations agencies, the World Bank, and the regional development banks).
Domestic violence is a health, legal, economic, educational, developmental and human rights problem. Strategies should be designed to operate across a broad range of areas depending upon the context in which they are delivered. Key areas for intervention include:
advocacy and awareness raising
education for building a culture of nonviolence
training
resource development
direct service provision to victim survivors and perpetrators
networking and community mobilization
direct intervention to help victim survivors rebuild their lives
legal reform
monitoring interventions and measures
data collection and analysis
Early identification of at risk' families, Communities, groups, and individuals.
Above all, five underlying principles should guide all strategies and interventions attempting to address domestic violence:
a) prevention
b) protection
c) early intervention
d) rebuilding the lives of victim-survivors
e) Accountability
REFERENCE:
1. Roberts, A (2002). Handbook of domestic violence intervention strategies:Policies, programs, and legal remedies. New York: Oxford University Press.
2. World Health Organization (1996) Violence against Women'. WHO Consultation, Geneva: WHO.
3. Johnson, Michael P., Kathleen J. Ferraro (2000). "Research on Domestic Violence in the 1990s: Making Distinctions". Journal of Marriage and the Family 62 (4): 94863.
4. Christie, D. J., Wagner, R. V., & Winter, D. A. (Eds.). (2001). Peace, Conflict, and Violence: Peace Psychology for the 21st Century.Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
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