subject: Citrus - China Mosaic Texture - Marble Texture [print this page] Description Description
Slices of various citrus fruits
These plants are large shrubs or small trees, reaching 515 m tall, with spiny shoots and alternately arranged evergreen leaves with an entire margin. The flowers are solitary or in small corymbs, each flower 24cm diameter, with five (rarely four) white petals and numerous stamens; they are often very strongly scented. The fruit is a hesperidium, a specialised berry, globose to elongated, 430cm long and 420cm diameter, with a leathery rind surrounding segments or "liths" filled with pulp vesicles. The genus is commercially important as many species are cultivated for their fruit, which is eaten fresh, pressed for juice, or preserved in marmalades.
Citrus fruits are notable for their fragrance, partly due to flavonoids and limonoids (which in turn are terpenes) contained in the rind, and most are juice-laden. The juice contains a high quantity of citric acid giving them their characteristic sharp flavour. They are also good sources of vitamin C and flavonoids.
Cultivation
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Further information: Citrus production
Persian Limes in a grocery store.
Citrus trees hybridise very readily depending on the pollen source, plants grown from a Persian Lime's seeds can produce fruit similar to grapefruit. Thus all commercial citrus cultivation uses trees produced by grafting the desired fruiting cultivars onto rootstocks selected for disease resistance and hardiness.
The colour of citrus fruits only develops in climates with a (diurnal) cool winter. In tropical regions with no winter, citrus fruits remain green until maturity, hence the tropical "green oranges". The Persian Lime in particular is extremely sensitive to cool conditions, thus it is not usually exposed to cool enough conditions to develop a mature colour. If they are left in a cool place over winter, the fruits will change colour to yellow.
It is important to note that the terms "ripe" and "mature" are usually used synonymously, but they actually mean different things. A mature fruit is one that has completed its growth phase. This will also ensure that it completes its ripening phase and reaches optimal quality for consumption, because a fruit cannot ripen until it reaches maturity. Ripening is the term used to describe the changes that occur within the fruit from the time it reaches maturity to the beginning of decay. These changes usually[when?] involve starches converting to sugars, a decrease in acids and a softening and change in the fruit's colour.
Citrus fruits do not go through a ripening process in the sense that they become "tree ripe." Some fruits, for example cherries, physically mature and then continue to ripen on the tree. Other fruits, like pears, are picked when mature but before they ripen, then continue to ripen off the tree. Citrus fruits pass from immaturity to maturity to over-maturity while still on the tree. Once they are separated from the tree, they will not increase in sweetness or continue to ripen. The only way change may happen after being picked is that they will eventually start to decay.
With oranges, colour cannot be used as an indicator of ripeness because sometimes the rinds turn orange long before the oranges are ready to eat. Tasting them is the only way to know whether or not they are ready to eat.
Mediterranean Mandarin (Citrus deliciosa plantation, Son Carri (Mallorca)
Citrus trees are not generally frost hardy. Mandarin Oranges (C. reticulata) tend to be the hardiest of the common Citrus species and can withstand short periods down to as cold as 10 C, but realistically temperatures not falling below 2 C are required for successful cultivation. Tangerines, tangors and yuzu can be grown outside even in regions with more marked sub-zero degrees in winter, although this may affect fruit quality. A few hardy hybrids can withstand temperatures well below freezing, but do not produce quality fruit. Lemons can be commercially grown in cooler-summer/moderate-winter coastal Southern California, because sweetness is neither attained nor expected in retail lemon fruit. The related Trifoliate Orange (Poncirus trifoliata) can survive below 20 C; its fruit are astringent and inedible unless cooked but a few better-tasting cultivars and hybrids have been developed (see citranges).
Leaf of Citrus tree
The trees thrive in a consistently sunny, humid environment with fertile soil and adequate rainfall or irrigation. Abandoned trees in valleys may suffer, yet survive, the dry summer of Central California's Inner Coast Ranges. At any age citrus grows well enough with infrequent irrigation in partial shade, but the fruit crop is smaller. Though broadleaved, they are evergreen and do not drop leaves except when stressed. The stems of many varieties have large sharp thorns. The trees flower in the spring, and fruit is set shortly afterward. Fruit begins to ripen in fall or early winter months, depending on cultivar, and develops increasing sweetness afterward. Some cultivars of tangerines ripen by winter. Some, such as the grapefruit, may take up to eighteen months to ripen.
Major commercial citrus growing areas include southern China, the Mediterranean Basin (including southern Spain), South Africa, Australia, the southernmost United States and parts of South America. In the United States, Florida, California, Arizona, and Texas are major producers, while smaller plantings are present in other Sun Belt states.
Orangery of the Botanical Garden in Leuven (Belgium)
As ornamental plants
Citrus trees grown in tubs and wintered under cover were a feature of Renaissance gardens, once glass-making technology enabled sufficient expanses of clear glass to be produced. An orangery was a feature of royal and aristocratic residences through the 17th and 18th centuries. The Orangerie at the Palace of the Louvre, 1617, inspired imitations that were not eclipsed until the development of the modern greenhouse in the 1840s. In the United States the earliest surviving orangery is at the Tayloe House, Mount Airy, Virginia. George Washington had an orangery at Mount Vernon.
Some modern hobbyists still grow dwarf citrus in containers or greenhouses in areas where it is too cold to grow it outdoors. Consistent climate, sufficient sunlight, and proper watering are crucial if the trees are to thrive and produce fruit. Compared to many of the usual "green shrubs", citrus trees better tolerate poor container care. For cooler winter areas, limes and lemons should not be grown, since they are more sensitive to winter cold than other citrus fruits. Hybrids with kumquats ( Citrofortunella) have good cold resistance.
Pests and diseases
Main article: List of citrus diseases
Citrus canker is caused by the gammaproteobacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis
Citrus plants are very liable to infestation by aphids, whitefly and scale insects (e.g. California red scale). Also rather important are the viral infections to which some of these ectoparasites serve as vectors such as the aphid-transmitted Citrus tristeza virus which when unchecked by proper methods of control is devastating to citrine plantations.
European brown snails (Helix aspersa) can be a problem in California, though laying female Khaki Campbell and other Mallard-based ducks can be used for control.
The foliage is also used as a food plant by the larvae of Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species such as the Geometridae Hemithea aestivaria (Common Emerald) and Gymnoscelis rufifasciata (Double-striped Pug), the Arctiidae Hypercompe scribonia (Giant Leopard Moth), H. eridanus, H. icasia and H. indecisa and many species in the family Papilionidae (swallowtail butterflies).
Since 2000, the Citrus Leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella) has been a pest in California, boring meandering patterns through leaves.
In eastern Australia, the Bronze-orange Bug (Musgraveia sulciventris) can be a major pest of citrus trees, particularly grapefruit. In heavy infestations it can cause flower and fruit drop and general tree stress.
Production
Brazil, India, the United States, Mexico, Italy and the People's Republic of China are the world's largest citrus-producing countries. Of these, Brazil, the US, and Mexico are the world's largest producers of oranges, whilst China produces most of the world's mandarins, and India is the world's largest producer of lemons and limes.
Uses
Culinary
Wedges of pink grapefruit, lime, and lemon, and a half orange (clockwise from top)
Many citrus fruits, such as oranges, tangerines, grapefruits, and clementines, are generally eaten fresh. They are typically peeled and can be easily split into segments. Grapefruit is more commonly halved and eaten out of the skin with a spoon.[citation needed] There are special spoons (grapefruit spoons) with serrated tips designed for this purpose. Orange and grapefruit juices are also very popular breakfast beverages. More acidic citrus, such as lemons and limes, are generally not eaten on their own. Meyer Lemons can be eaten 'out of hand' with the fragant skin; they are both sweet and sour. Lemonade or limeade are popular beverages prepared by diluting the juices of these fruits and adding sugar. Lemons and limes are also used as garnishes or in cooked dishes. Their juice is used as an ingredient in a variety of dishes; it can commonly be found in salad dressings and squeezed over cooked meat or vegetables. A variety of flavours can be derived from different parts and treatments of citrus fruits. The rind and oil of the fruit is generally very bitter, especially when cooked, and so is often combined with sugar. The fruit pulp can vary from sweet and tart to extremely sour. Marmalade, a condiment derived from cooked orange and lemon, can be especially bitter, but is usually sweetened to cut the bitterness and produce a jam-like result. Lemon or lime is commonly used as a garnish for water, soft drinks, or cocktails. Citrus juices, rinds, or slices are used in a variety of mixed drinks. The colourful outer skin of some citrus fruits, known as zest, is used as a flavouring in cooking; the white inner portion of the peel, the pith, is usually avoided due to its bitterness. The zest of a citrus fruit, typically lemon or an orange, can also be soaked in water in a coffee filter, and drunk.
Medical
Citrus juice also has medical uses; lemon juice is used to relieve the pain of bee stings. Oranges were historically used for their high content of vitamin C, which prevents scurvy. Scurvy is caused by vitamin C deficiency, and can be prevented by having 10 milligrams of vitamin C a day. An early sign of scurvy is fatigue. If ignored, later symptoms are bleeding and bruising easily. British sailors were rationed citrus fruits on long voyages to prevent the onset of scurvy, hence the British nickname of Limey. After consumption, the peel is sometimes used as a facial cleanser. Before the development of fermentation-based processes, lemons were the primary commercial source of citric acid.
List of citrus fruits
Citrons (Citrus medica) for sale in Germany.
Red Finger Lime (Citrus australasica), a rare delicacy from Australia.
The genus Citrus has been suggested to originate in Southeast Asia. Prior to human cultivation, it consisted of just a few species, namely:
Citrus aurantifolia Key Lime, Omani Lime, from India
Citrus maxima Pomelo (pummelo, shaddock), from the Malay Archipelago
Citrus medica Citron, from India
Citrus reticulata Mandarin orange, from China
Citrus trifoliata Trifoliate Orange, from Korea and adjacent China (often separated as Poncirus)
Australian limes
Citrus australasica Finger Lime (sometimes separated in Microcitrus)
Citrus australis Australian Round Lime (sometimes separated in Microcitrus)
Citrus glauca Desert Lime (sometimes separated in Eremocitrus)
and 3 other Microcitrus
Kumquats, 4-5 species from East Asia ranging into Southeast Asia (often separated as Fortunella)
Papedas, including
Citrus halimii limau kadangsa, limau kedut kera, from Thailand and Malaya
Citrus indica Indian Wild Orange, from India
Hybrids and cultivars
Sweetie or Oroblanco is a pomelo-grapefruit hybrid.
The Etrog, or Citron, is central to the ritual of the Jewish Sukkot festival. Many varieties are used for this purpose (including the Yemenite variety pictured).
Clementines (Citrus clementina) have thinner skins than oranges.
Mikan (Citrus unshiu), also known as satsumas.
Sweet oranges (Citrus sinensis) are used in many foods. Their ancestors were probably pomelos and mandarin oranges.
A batch of kaffir limes (Citrus hystrix).
Lemons (Citrus limon), whole and in sections.
Sorted by parentage. As each is the product of (at least) two parent species, they are listed multiple times.
Citrus maxima-based
Amanatsu, natsumikan Citrus natsudaidai (C. maxima unknown)
Cam snh (C. reticulata C. sinensis)
Grapefruit Citrus paradisi (C. maxima C. sinensis)
Imperial Lemon (C. limon C. paradisi)
Kinnow, Wilking (C. nobilis C. deliciosa)
Kiyomi (C. sinensis C. unshiu)
Minneola Tangelo (C. reticulata C. paradisi)
Orangelo, Chironja (C. paradisi C. sinensis)
Oroblanco, Sweetie (C. maxima C. paradisi)
Sweet Orange Citrus sinensis (probably C. maxima C. reticulata)
Tangelo Citrus tangelo (C. reticulata C. maxima or C. paradisi)
Tangor Citrus nobilis (C. reticulata C. sinensis)
Ugli (C. reticulata C. maxima or C. paradisi)
Citrus medica-based
Buddha's Hand Citrus medica var. sarcodactylus
Citron varieties with sour pulp: Diamante citron, Florentine citron, Greek citron and Balady citron
Citron varieties with sweet pulp: Corsican citron and Moroccan citron.
Yemenite citron a pulpless citron.
Fernandina Citrus limonimedica (probably C. medica C. limon)
Ponderosa Lemon (probably C. medica C. limon)
Citrus reticulata-based
Bergamot Orange Citrus aurantium ssp. bergamia or Citrus bergamia
Bitter Orange, Seville Orange Citrus aurantium
Blood Orange Citrus sinensis cultivars
Cam snh (C. reticulata C. sinensis)
Chinotto Citrus aurantium var. myrtifolia or Citrus myrtifolia
For hybrids with kumquats, see Citrofortunella. For hybrids with the Trifoliate Orange, see citrange.
Others
Citrus macroptera - grown in the Sylhet region of Bangladesh, where it is called shatkora
See also
Food portal
Japanese citrus
Juice vesicles
Fruit anatomy
Footnotes
^ Kimball, Dan A. (1999). Citrus Processing: A Complete Guide (2 ed.). Springer. p.9. ISBN 9780834212589. http://books.google.com/books?id=YeF14yGITcoC&.
^ Spiegel-Roy, Pinchas; Eliezer E. Goldschmidt (1996). Biology of Citrus. Cambridge University Press. p.4. ISBN 9780521333214. http://books.google.com/books?id=SmRJnd73dbYC&.
^ Nicolosi et al. (2000)
^ Nicolosi et al. (2000), de Arajo et al. (2003)
^ http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r107303211.html
References
Andrews, A.C. (1961): Acclimatization of citrus fruits in the Mediterranean region. Agricultural History 35(1): 35-46.
de Arajo, E. Freitas; de Queiroz, L. Paganucci & Machado, M.A. (2003): What is Citrus? Taxonomic implications from a study of cp-DNA evolution in the tribe Citreae (Rutaceae subfamily Aurantioideae). Organisms Diversity & Evolution 3(1): 55-62. doi:10.1078/1439-6092-00058 (HTML abstract)
Nicolosi, E.; Deng, Z.N.; Gentile, A.; La Malfa, S.; Continella, G. & Tribulato, E. (2000): Citrus phylogeny and genetic origin of important species as investigated by molecular markers. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 100(8): 1155-1166. doi:10.1007/s001220051419 (HTML abstract)
Further reading
Calabrese, Francesco (2002): Origin and history. In: Dugo, Giovanni & Di Giacomo, Angelo (eds.) (2002): Citrus. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-28491-0
Ellis, R.H.; Hong, T.D. & Roberts, E.H. (1985): Chapter 64. Rutaceae. In: Handbook of Seed Technology for Genebanks (Volume II: Compendium of Specific Germination Information and Test Recommendations). International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, Rome, Italy. HTML fulltext
Frison, E.A. & Taher, M.M. (eds.) (1991): FAO/IBPGR Technical Guidelines for the Safe Movement of Citrus Germplasm. FAO, IOCV, IPGRI. PDF fulltext
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) (1999): Descriptors for Citrus (Citrus spp.). PDF fulltext
Janick, Jules (2005): Purdue University Tropical Horticulture Lecture 32: Citrus
Luro, F.; Laigret, F.; Bov, J.M. & Ollitrault, P. (1995): RFLP analysis of cytoplasmic and nuclear genomes used for citrus taxonomy. In: Mandarines - dveloppements scientifiques rcents, rsums oraux et posters: 12-13. CIRAD-FLHOR, San Nicolao, France. HTML abstract
