subject: Archeology's Scientific Exposition of Pompeii [print this page] Archeology's Scientific Exposition of Pompeii
Historical accounts, fortified by geological data, prove that in, or about, 79 A.D. Vesuvius erupted, destroyed the ancient city of Pompeii and buried it beneath mounds of volcanic dust, debris and molten lava. As explicated by the late archeological scholar and researcher, Professor Merrill, upon the eruption of Vesuvius Pompeii was "overwhelmed by a tremendous river of liquid mud, which appears to have penetrated and filled every nook and cranny of the place, and accumulated to a depth of sixty to seventy feet"(304). Consequent to this natural catastrophe, Pompeii all but disappeared. The hardening of the lava and mud made excavation of the city, until the evolution of scientifically-based archeological tools and methodologies, impossible (304-5). Certainly, the location of the lost city of Pompeii was known, since it had been explicitly recorded in ancient annals and in the letters of Pliny the Younger, one of the most reliable eye-witnesses to the eruption. Furthermore, as Professor Milner writes in a second article, the location of Pompeii was confirmed in 1595 when excavations for a new aqueduct unexpectedly led to the discovery of Pompeian coins and artifacts (263-4). However, further excavation was rendered impossible due to the fact that the ancient city was buried deep in molten lava, ash and mud which had hardened into over sixty feet of rock. Over the centuries, the gradual evolution of science and technology enabled not only the excavation of Pompeii but an accurate reading of the volcanic eruption and the history of this ancient people.
While historical journals have popularly set the date of Vesuvius' eruption and the subsequent destruction of Pompeii at 79 AD, geological and scientific data has not been able to establish this as fact. As the geologists and archeologists, Sigurdsson et al. (1985) explain, the dating of the eruption is ascribed to Pliny the Younger who, as an eyewitness to the event, recorded its occurrence as having taken place on 24th August 79 AD. Science, however, has been incapable of conclusively proving the stated since carbon dating technologies, while relatively precise, provide readings within an acceptable margin of error (89). Hence, while carbon dating of the debris proved the eruption to be at least 2000 years old, it has been unable to conclusively establish it at 79 AD (90). Consequently, for the sake of scientific accuracy, the research shall refer to the eruption as having approximately occurred around 79 AD.
The evolution of excavation tools led to the resumption of efforts to uncover Pompeii in 1755. However, as explicated by the archeologist, Prof. Wilhelmina Jashemski, the excavation soon stalled and was really unable to cover much, both due to the fact that Pompeii was buried deep in hardened lava and mud and because archaeological tools and know-how were, at that time, underdeveloped and incapable of fulfilling the defined task. A second excavation in 1814 had, due to the evolution of archaeological tools, greater success. It was, at least, able to uncover the southern wall of the Pompeii amphitheater (69-70). However, it is necessary to point out that despite the fact that, within the context of the time, the excavation was considered a success, its results were critically limited. As important as the uncovering of the southern section of the wall was, it was hardly capable of allowing archaeologists to uncover the city's culture and history or recreate the eruption.
It was not until the twentieth century that archaeological tools and scientific technology had sufficiently evolved to enable the excavation of this ancient city. By the mid-twentieth century, excavation projects aimed at uncovering the remainder of the amphitheater successfully concluded. Between December 1954 and May 1955, the entirety of the amphitheater was uncovered and the structure that lay beneath the tonnes of hardened mud and lava, held a wealth of information about the city and its culture (Jashemski 69).
The excavated amphitheatre provided historians and archaeologists with their first look at the pristinely preserved Pompeii. The amphitheater, by the standards of the age, was quite small, seating approximately 20,000 people and boasting only two entrances (Jashemski 69-71). Directly across the main entrance, archaeologists uncovered a triclinium and, at the northeastern quadrant of the amphitheater, they uncovered a large house. Two of its rooms appear to have been set aside for wine making (69). These simple facts provided archaeologists with an insight into both the lifestyle and the culture of the era. The presence of the triclinium, in which the gladiators killed at the amphitheatre were buried, evidenced the respect awarded to this category of warriors who were celebrated in death, just as they were in life, as heroes. Beyond that, the presence of wine-making equipment, let alone rooms devoted to wine-making in the excavated house lent to the belief that there were thriving vineyards in the region (72). Later studies revealed that indeed, there had been.
Following completion of the excavation of Pompeii, archeologists found that they had uncovered an almost perfectly preserved city, whose walls enclose an area of just under 163 acres and have seven main entrances. The public buildings, as the archeological scholar, Dobbins, continues to explain, are located at the southwestern elevation of the city. In this area, excavations uncovered The Forum, the city's religious, economic and public focal point, the above described amphitheater, and a temple dedicated to Jupiter, Minerva and Juno (641-2). At the eastern edge of the city, archeologists uncovered the headquarters of a wool industry, a public provisions market, the Temple of Vespasian, and the basilica or the palace of justice. At the western edge, a temple dedicated to Venus, the patron goddess of Pompeii was excavated, as were the Doric Temple, the oldest in Pompeii, a palaestra, and theater. Throughout the city, archeologists found public baths for the citizenry and private ones located in the homes of the wealthy (643). Apart from that, hundreds of private homes were excavated, some dating four hundred years prior to the eruption with their architectural features evidencing, not only a thriving trade between Pompeii and Ancient Greece but the influence of Hellenic culture and architectural styles, in addition to some vestiges of Ancient Egyptian influence in older structures (643-644). Amongst the most luxurious and awe-inspiring of these private homes are the House of Faun, which spans an entire bloc, and the House of the Silver Wedding which features, among other things, a private schoolroom (644-645).
The above description of Pompeii, as revealed following completion of the excavation, has incalculable scientific, archaeological and historic import consequent the fact that the near-instantaneous burial of the city beneath sixty to seventy feet of mud, lava and ash had protected Pompeii from the ravages of time and the elements, culminating in the near-pristine preservation of the city. The near perfect preservation of the city, concomitant with the excavation of the corpses of the 2,000 Pompeians which, according Pliny the Younger was the total death toll, has enabled scientific site analysis to recreate the eruption of Vesuvius.
In describing the eruption of Vesuvius, Pliny the Younger, observing it from a distance, wrote that he saw a large dark cloud, shaped somewhat like a pine tree, emanate from Vesuvius and, within minutes, cover the entire city. The description provided has been identified by geologist as a pyroclastic flow and scientific analysis of the site confirmed the stated. Upon examining the subsoil, the debris, and the corpses, scientists concluded that excessively heated gas, rock and volcanic ash had suddenly emerged from Vesuvius, thereby accounting for the pyroclastic flow described by Pliny the Younger. Examination of the corpses, insofar as forensic findings revealed that the skin had fallen of the bodies and the heat had penetrated to the bones and, additionally, that asphyxiation was the cause of the majority of deaths, evidenced the emission of such superheated poisonous gas and carbon dioxide as would lend to the conclusion that the referred to gas had stood at an initial temperature of 850oC. Additional forensic geological examination of a sampling of 200 volcanic rocks and debris found at the site confirmed the stated, further elucidating the fact that, upon emission, the gas was at the stated temperature but by the time it had descended upon the city, it had dropped to 350oC. The minimum heat exposure level was, as determined by thorough site analysis, 180oC (Sigurdsson et al., 313-4).
Apart from the eyewitness account provided by Pliny the Younger and those of some of the 18,000 Pompeians who were able to escape, scientific evidence, as revealed through debris and rock which indicated the temperature, thereby strength, of the eruption, lends to the conclusion that the catastrophe was a relatively sudden one. According to Sigurdsson et al., exploration of the excavated houses, on the one hand, and the positioning of many of the corpses, on the other, supports this contention. In many of the houses, the tables were laid out for meals and in others there was evidence of meal preparations. As for the corpses, or more accurately the many human fossils that were uncovered, forensic examination demonstrated that the bodies had been initially buried in ash and mud. Falling rains later cemented the mud and ash, encasing the bodies. Following the decay of the human remains, and consequent to the surrounding mould, an open cavity was preserved. These cavities proved very useful since they enabled archaeologists to make plaster of paris casts and recreate the last moment of the victims. The casts revealed that many of the victims, as suggested by the fact that they died with their hands clutched to their mouths, had expired from asphyxiation, and had expressions of agony on their faces. Others had died while clutching bags of gold in their hands, possibly trying to gather their material possessions before escaping the city (323-5).
On-site analysis of the remains, as explicated thus far, do not just testify to the ferocity and the suddenness of the eruption but hold important indications about the lifestyle and concerns of this ancient people. In the first place, and as supported by the number of luxurious temples found, they, like most ancients, were both religious and superstitious. Hence, apart from the dedication of temples to the city's patron goddess, temples were dedicated to a vast array of deities and generous offerings were found in all (Sigurdsson et al., 313-4). The offerings, the luxurious architecture of the temples and their quantity, testify to the fact that the citizens deeply believed that the fate of Pompeii, as well as their own personal fortunes and fates, were inextricably linked to the acquisition, and maintenance, of the approval of the deities (315). In the second place, and as determined through the excavated public and private structures, Pompeii had a long history of trade with other cultures. Hence, the older of the structures reveal a discernible Ancient Egyptian architectural influence, moving to the Hellenic and finally, the Roman (Dobbin 680). Archaeological analysis, therefore, exposed at least five centuries of history preceding the eruption of Vesuvius and subsequent destruction of Pompeii.
Additional site examination revealed that, while the majority of the structures were pristinely preserved, with very few exceptions the roofs of the private and some of the public buildings had collapsed. Scientific analysis of the collected roof debris indicated that the collapse had been consequent to the sudden fall of unsustainable weight over them (Sigurdsson et al., 339). Geological examination of the causal factor proved that the collapsed roof debris was partially encased in volcanic ash, mud, pumice and lava. Construction engineering calculations and analysis later suggested that a load of approximately 250 kilograms, or 40 cm of pumice and other volcanic debris caused the stated collapse (Sigurdsson et al., 341). This finding allowed geologists to determine that the pyroclastic surge had exceeded the strength of 100 kilometres per hour (341-2). With these facts, as revealed through scientific analysis of the site in mind, it is hardly remarkable that 2,000 people perished. What is remarkable is that 18,000 successfully escaped death.
Apart from analysis of debris, volcanic rock and material, soil analysis at the amphitheatre proved very informative. As explained by Jashemski, from 1955 to 1966, the subsoil of the amphitheatre was carefully examined. Examination of the stated would not only enable dating of the volcanic eruption but would expose the uses of the area. The stated examination quite interesting revealed that the amphitheater was not an empty space dedicated to the matches between gladiators and animals but was planted in areas. Tree root cavities, measuring from 9 to 30 centimeters in diameters were uncovered and further examination of the subsoil revealed that the amphitheater had also been used as a cattle market (72-3). Therefore, soil analysis revealed significant facts about the economic and agricultural activities of the city's inhabitants at the time of destruction. Hence, consequent to such scientific advancements as have enabled site examinations to include analysis of the subsoil, archaeologists were able to determine the types of vegetation grown, the variant uses of the amphitheater and even identity, within a margin of acceptable scientific error, the species of animals that had fought the gladiators therein.
In addition to the stated finding, the American archaeologist, Parslow, reports that a wealth of treasures have been uncovered and, amongst them, wall graffiti which recorded the political and economic life of the citizenry and the city. The houses of the wealthy indicated, not just the economic activity of the occupants but, in some instances recorded the occupants' wealth and their political views (340). Graffiti has been further uncovered in the public sections of the city and here, the main theme is political. In some instances, we find graffiti in support of the appointment of specific individuals to public office and a recording of their virtue and capabilities (340-1). In other words, and as Parslow explains, archaeology and site analysis are not simply about uncovering artifacts, monuments and structures but, more importantly, are about the scientific reading of the history contained within that which archaeology has uncovered.
Reid et al., professors of history and archaeology, concur with Parsons' contention. As they emphasize, archaeology would have little historical and anthropological/cultural import if the extent of its capacities were to uncover ancient monuments and unearth buried treasures. More importantly, archaeology should be able to employ science, not just to carbon date the artifacts and examine subsoil but to more precisely articulate what each and every structure and artifact are able to inform us about the history, culture and lifestyle of an ancient people (802-3).
Due to the fact that archaeology has such scientific tools at its disposal as would allow a more precise reading of an excavated site, site analysis have been able to reveal much about the lifestyle of the ancient people of Pompeii. As Parslow explains, many of the city's excavated structures, such as residential houses, were subjected to precise scientific dating analysis. The results of the analysis revealed that, as pertains to the larger and more luxurious of the residential houses, the structures evolved and expanded over time to reflect the increasing wealth and enhanced social status of their owners (340). Through careful analysis and dating of the structures, the Harvard University archeologist, Hetty Joyce, reports that archaeologists were able to determine that the original structures were usually quite modest dwellings. However, with the progression of time, additional rooms were constructed and the wall adornments became more lavish and decorative as did the flooring (254-5). Excavated records, often wall graffiti given that most of the papyrus scrolls found had been carbonized as a direct result of being buried in lava and hardened mud for so many centuries, revealed that expansion corresponded with increased wealth and the desire for improved social status (255-6). In other words, through the employment of such scientific technology as would allow precise dating of artifacts, monuments and structures, site analysis of Pompeii has uncovered the presence of social mobility, engendered by attainment of wealth and economic success.
Apart from the fact that the scientific examination of the excavated structures has been able to reveal the existence of social and economic mobility, Hetty Joyce notes that it has further been able to elaborate upon the building tools and techniques at the disposal of the people of Pompeii at the time of the eruption of Vesuvius. Examination of the flooring, whether that of the city's pavements or of its houses, has been aided by the fact that the hardened lave and mud has almost perfectly preserved them (253). Such examination has revealed that the dominant patterns of white and black against a rose-colored background were determined by the raw materials available to the people. That is to say, the choice of coloring was not stylistic, as was initially assumed consequent to the prevalence of these flooring colors but a consequence of the fact that these colors were those that were the most readily available within the framework of Pompeii's resources. This was revealed when the constituents of the flooring were scientifically examined and exposed as containing local mud, terracotta, cement, beaten earth and gneiss (254-5). All these ingredients, as later revealed through subsoil and site examinations, are locally available and plentiful (255). This fact, in itself, demonstrates that the inhabitants of the city had learnt to exploit their local resources for the fulfillment of construction and decorative demands.
The above explicated scientific findings do not simply inform us about the lifestyle and culture of the city at the time of the eruption of Pompeii but about ourselves or, more accurately, about human nature. Interest in entertainment and the necessity of there being a central public place for entertainment has remained stable whereby, just as in Pompeii, most every developed city today has its stadium or sports center where crowds gather to be entertained by matches and other events. Similarly, and as is still the case, a person's dwelling and the decorations that are found within it, are immediate reflections of that person's social status and economic standing. Hence, as one's economic status improves, so does one's dwelling. This is as true today as it was in the ancient city of Pompeii. The point here is that the undeniable existence of similarities can only be interpreted as evidencing the continuity of history and the relative stability of human nature. Certainly, we may think of ourselves as more civilized than the citizens of Pompeii and, at least, as we assure ourselves, do not seek entertainment through the pitting of man against beast to the death. However, were we to look beyond the outer manifestations of civilization and examine the componential elements of the lifestyle and culture of this ancient people, as this paper has sought to do, we would concede that archaeology has not only exposed the real Pompeii but has revealed the continuity of human nature.
In addition to the above, the facts of the eruption communicate a set of important lessons. As illustrated through scientific data and facts, the eruption was both sudden and ferocious. Neither the people nor the structures could withstand this natural disaster. Vesuvius was buried and lost for 16 centuries and a significant percentage of its population suffered the agonizing death of poison gas asphyxiation. This, if anything, teaches us the futility of building structures and towns around volcanoes. Certainly, modern engineering technologies can construct structures that would survive such a disaster but the point is that the human inhabitants would not. Thus, in light of the stated, one need conclude that construction around active volcanoes should be actively discouraged through laws to the effect.
Works Cited
Dobbins, John J. "Problems of Chronology, Decoration, and Urban Design in the Forum at Pompeii." American Journal of Archaeology. 98,.4 (Oct. 1994), pp. 629-694.
Jashemski, Wilhelmina. "Excavations in the Foro Boario at Pompeii: A Preliminary Report." American Journal of Archaeology. 72, 1 (Jan. 1968), 69-73.
Joyce, Hetty. "Form, Function and Technique in the Pavements of Delos and Pompeii." American Journal of Archaeology. 83, 3 (Jul. 1979), 253-263.
Merrill, Elmer. "Notes on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D." American Journal of Archaeology. 22, 3 (Jul.-Sep. 1918), 304-309.
Merrill, Elmer. "Further Notes on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D." American Journal of Archaeology. 24, 3 (Jul. 1920), 262-268.
Parslow, Christopher. "Review Article: Beyond Domestic Architecture at Pompeii." American Journal of Archaeology. 103, 2 (Apr. 1999), 340-343.
Reid, Jefferson et al. "Perception and Interpretation in Contemporary Southwestern Archaeology." American Antiquity. 54, 4 (Oct. 1989), 802-814.
Sigurdsson, H. et al. "The Eruption of Vesuvius in AD 79." National Geographic Research. 1, 3. 1985, pp. 332-387.
