The typical Congressional Debate speech is three minutes long. However, the school who has written the bill being spoken on begins with a three minute authorship speech followed by mandatory two minutes of questioning. One three minute speech in negation follows it, often with a mandatory two minutes of questioning. After these two three minute speeches, debate continues with three minute speeches and one minute of questioning. Within this time, the speaker must lay out an organized, logical defense of why the chamber should vote for or against a given bill. The general format of a speech is as follows:
Introduction: A statement, anecdote, fact, or statistic designed to capture the imagination and the attention of the audience. The introduction is then tied into the argument of the speech, as the speaker urges the chamber to vote one way or another. Often, the three main lines of argument are "foreshadowed" to give the audience an idea of where the speech is leading, however, some criticize this addition as a waste of limited time.
Contentions: Two or three arguments for or against the bill. Each contention should be explained in the speaker's own words, as well as supported by evidence from reputable and relevant sources.
Conclusion: The speaker often restates his 2 or 3 contentions, and hopefully returns briefly to the attention-grabber of the introduction to give the speech thematic unity. In some leagues, they end with the phrase "I am now open for cross-examinations and further points of clarification." Alternatively, conclusions can consist of merely 1 or 2 sentences, frequently "For these reasons you must pass/fail this bill/resolution/legislation."
Criteria for judging
While judging a speech is clearly, to a certain extent, subjective, there are certain key standards that most would agree distinguish a good speech from a bad one:
Eloquence: A good Congressional debater should speak powerfully and clearly, correctly use appropriate vocabulary, and vary his or her voice throughout the speech to emphasize certain points or to create a specific mood.
Logic: The points advanced by a debater should be well-explained and should effectively sway the audience towards the speaker's beliefs on the subject.
Organization: The speech should have a well-defined outline, generally following the guidelines of the "format" section above.
Extemporaneity: Although a speaker may bring up notes or a note card when delivering his or her speech, the less reading, the better. Pre-written speeches on a bill are referred to as canned speeches and are highly discouraged, and in some organizations considered a form of cheating. Unless it is the first speech of the session, a speech should refer to the points that have already been made, usually by refuting points brought up by the opposition.
Questioning: The speaker is judged on how well he or she answers questions given by other congressmen following the speech. This includes how confident he or she is during questioning, and the effectiveness of the responses in strengthening his or her side of the argument.
Procedure
The exact procedure for Congressional Debate varies widely across the country. There is no one "standard" for correct Congressional Debate procedure. However, most Student Congress associations use some variation of the following outline.
Chambers and sessions
Students attending each tournament are divided up into groups of somewhere between ten to thirty (usually around twenty). These groups are called chambers, Houses, or Senates, depending on the region and the tournament (some tournaments include both Houses and Senates).
Time-wise, a tournament is divided into several sessions, each of which are several hours long. If a tournament lasts several days, there is often one session on the first night of debate, followed by several more on the subsequent day.
In some tournaments, congressional debaters go through a series of rounds such as: prelims, quarterfinals, and semifinals. The top ranked debaters in each chamber of semifinals (usually top 6), move on to Super Congress, which in simplest terms is the Finals. In the supers round the highest ranked debaters should have prepared a set of speeches of the designated finals legislation pieces. The top 6 are ranked the various others are given a 7 representing unranked. Usually any number under the top 6 depending on tournament's size will receive a qualification to the state tournament. This is accompanied by a trophy rather than the other prize the unranked finalists receive.[citation needed]
Presiding Officers
Each chamber has a Presiding Officer or Chairman (informally known as "the P.O." or "Chair"). At the beginning of each session of debate, debaters in the chamber will nominate candidates for Presiding Officer for that session. Usually, each nominee will give a brief speech introducing themselves and stating their qualifications. Debaters then elect a Presiding Officer via secret ballot.
The Presiding Officer's job is essentially to run the debate for the session that they've been elected. This includes the following duties:
picking speakers for each piece of legislation
picking questioners during questioning periods
timing individual speeches and ensuring the speaker does not exceed 3 minutes
calling for and recognizing motions
conducting votes on motions and pieces of legislation
generally controlling the chamber and keeping debaters from becoming too unruly
The Presiding Officer is generally scored, usually by either the judges or the Parliamentarian (see below), on how well they fulfill those duties.
Parliamentarian
In addition to judges who score speeches, most Congress tournaments will have a Parliamentarian in the chamber. Unlike the judges, who generally rotate each session, the Parliamentarian will remain in the chamber for all the sessions of debate. The Parliamentarian's role is a fairly passive one; their main purpose in the chamber is to serve as a reference on parliamentary procedure in case there is confusion or a dispute that the Presiding Officer cannot resolve. Unless either the Presiding Officer makes (or fails to correct) a very major error in procedure or else the debate gets bogged down the Parliamentarian will generally not intervene in the proceedings unless asked by someone in the chamber.
In the NCFL and at other tournaments, the Parliamentarian will also be in charge of scoring the Presiding Officer.
In the State of Utah,[citation needed] the Presiding Officer will appoint a member of the chamber to act as Parliamentarian. This student will keep the priority/recency for the Chairman and will not rank or judge the other members of the body. The Parliamentarian is considered a member of the body and will continue to participate, and because of the appointed nature of the office it will not be counted as a speech. The Parliamentarian serves at the Chairman's pleasure, and there are often occasions that the Chairman will not appoint a Parliamentarian, but rather handle the duties by himself/herself.
Debate format
Committees
Rounds usually begin with a method for selecting which bills will be debated, and in which order. In some styles of debate, (like the one used at NCFL tournaments), students break up into committees to set an agenda, or "docket," of bills. One popular arrangement of committees is to have three: one for bills related to "Public welfare", another for "Economics," and a third for "Foreign Affairs." Each committee is headed by a chairperson, usually an experienced debater.
After the docket has been set up, Presiding Officers are voted on, and once one is selected, debate begins.
In many parts of the country, committees are not used, with students instead participating in an informal caucus featuring one competitor from each school.
Parliamentary procedure
An 1876 edition of Robert's Rules of Order
Congressional Debate uses Robert's Rules of Order, a popular system of parliamentary procedure. The debate is guided by motions made by students, who rise and say "motion" to get the attention of the P.O. Motions guide the general flow of debate, but the P.O. himself is responsible for acknowledging motions, conducting votes, and generally running the chamber.
Some styles of debate require a motion "to open the chamber for debate," or a "main motion." If committees are not used to set a docket, a motion is made to choose which bill to begin with. To begin debate on a bill is to, "take a bill off the table." "The table" refers to bills which are not currently being debated. Once a student feels that debate on a bill is exhausted, he or she may motion to "lay a bill on the table," which ceases debate on that bill.
Once a bill is taken off the table, the Presiding Officer will either read the bill, or "waive the reading" of the bill in the interest of time. Debate then begins.
The authorship
The Presiding Officer then announces that a speech in authorship/representation of the bill is now in order. The representative that wrote the bill must give an introductory speech laying out the main arguments for the bill. This speech, unlike any other Congressional Debate speech, may be pre-written. If the author of the bill is not present in the chamber, someone from his or her school gives the authorship speech. If no one from that school is present, a "sponsor" gives a "sponsorship" speech instead.
Picking Subsequent speeches
After the authorship or sponsorship speech, the Presiding Officer calls for a speech in opposition to the bill. If there is no one who will speak in negation, a student will be called to affirm. However, one sided debate (negation after negation or affirmation after affirmation) is frowned upon. Whichever debaters wish to speak on the bill stand, or otherwise indicate their desire to speak. How the P.O. chooses speakers varies greatly by region and by level of competition. In general, however, these rules are observed.
When one speaker has given fewer speeches (either in that session or in the tournament as a whole) than another speaker, the former has precedence. If their speech amounts are equal, then the speaker who spoke earliest receives precedence. When everyone is making their first speech, either the P.O. chooses the speakers however he/she pleases or whoever has asked the most questions receives precedence.
Some methods used by P.O.s include:
Tracking the number of cross-examination questions a speaker has asked
Tracking how long the speaker has been standing to speak on the current piece of legislation
Calling "randomly" on speakers
Considering which speakers were the first to stand
Considering which speakers have been standing for the most number of speeches
Distributing speeches equally among geographic regions (considering separately the four quadrants of the chamber)
Following a pattern based on location, for instance, by calling on speakers from front-to-back, or left-to-right, and then reversing the order in the following session
Another process that is used: In the first preliminary round, as well as the semi-final and final rounds, each speaker is issued a set of priority cards, typically one through five or one through six depending on the number of rounds and bills. Speakers wishing to speak on the side of the bill (Proponency or Opponency) currently in order hold up their lowest number priority card to indicate the desire to speak. Lower numbers have priority over higher numbers, and in case of tied numbers, priority is given to the speaker who has unsuccessfully attempted to speak the most times or asked the most questions. In cases of an absolute tie, speakers are asked to yield or to participate in a coin toss or quick game of Rock, Paper, Scissors. The speaker who wins the floor surrenders their lowest number priority card to the Presiding Officer. A speaker who has exhausted the supply of priority cards may only speak if no other speakers contest said speaker for the floor.
Questioning or Cross Examination
Once the floor is awarded to a speaker and a three minute maximum speech is given, under current NFL rules, the speaker is required to answer questions for at least one minute. Some areas and tournaments (such as the Harvard National Congress or Deerfield National Debate), rather than using the relatively new one minute mandatory cross examination period, revert to old NFL rules and use the remaining time a speech has before three minutes have elapsed for cross examination in order to allow for more speeches in a session. If, however, the speaker is giving the first speech on a piece of legislation, there is a mandatory two minutes of questioning. Members of the chamber (people who are not current speakers) who have given the least questions are called on first to ask questions. If the chamber feels that the content of the speech or the speaker's response to questions merit additional questioning, some tournaments allow for the suspension of the rules to extend questioning time. However, much of the time such a suspension is looked down upon and viewed as a waste of time, unless the extension was absolutely necessary.
Typically, questions will attempt to expose faults in the speech just given. Sometimes speakers planning to speak or having spoken on the same side of the bill as the Senator or Congressperson currently holding the floor will ask him or her to agree with a statement pertaining to the relevant side of the argument. This is known as a "friendly question" and in some regions is discouraged. Questions, and their respective answers, are to be short and to the point, as delays will unfairly cut into other speakers' question time. However, asking questions to suggest the speaker to make a point is against NFL rules.
Motions
A pair of one proponency and one opponency speech in that order is considered a cycle. In between cycles, time is given for speakers to introduce motions onto the floor. In most tournaments, the Presiding Officer has a large amount of discretion to exercise over whether or not to rule motions in order, but at high level competitions, such as CHSSA State Qualifiers, the Presiding Officer is meant to be a strict procedurist; that is, the P.O. should simply follow through with any motions introduced.
Some motions are meant to change the topic of debate. Motions falling under this category include motions to lay a bill on the table (ending debate on a bill), motions to take a bill from the table (re-starting debate on a bill), and the motion to previous question, which is a motion to vote to pass or fail a bill. Some tournaments establish a minimum time before the Previous Question can be called; others have a limit on how long debate can run. Because voting on a bill will end debate on that bill immediately, it is sometimes considered rude or in bad form to make such a motion before all participants who desire to speak on that bill have done so. A Presiding Officer might rule the motion dilatory in such a situation. If some participants wish to speak while others want to move on, a compromise might be reached in which the bill is tabled and then returned to.
Conclusion
After the Previous Question has been called and the bill or bills voted on, the Presiding Officer announces whether or not a majority vote has been reached, which is required to pass any bill. This is merely a formality, as well as in some states an explicit signal of the end of the round. The Presiding Officer will than entertain Motions to adjourn or recess, which is seconded and passed. The speakers exit.
At most Congressional Debate tournaments, awards are given to recognize the best speakers in each chamber. Often, members of the chamber itself vote for one of the awards given. The best legislation written and best all-around teams are also often recognized.
Frequently Used Parliamentary Motions
The following motions are used at almost all Student Congress tournaments:
Motion
Notes
Second Required
Fraction of Chamber Required
To open the floor to debate*
Also called the "main motion"
Yes
Majority
To take a bill from the table
Opens debate on tabled legislation, which may or may not have already been debated
Yes
Majority
To lay a bill on the table
Ends debate on a bill, but debate on a tabled bill may be resumed if it is later taken from the table, or if the rest of the docket is completed and time still allows
Yes
Majority
To call previous question
To call "previous question" is to end debate on a bill and vote on it
Yes
2/3
To recess
The length of the recess must be specified
Yes
Majority
To rise to a point of personal privilege
To make a personal request
No
Decision of chair
To rise to a point of order/parliamentary procedure
To correct a parliamentary error, ask a question, or clarify a procedure
No
Decision of chair
To amend
Modify a motion; filled out slip must be passed to P.O. in advance
1/3
Majority to Debate the amendment, then 2/3 to pass.
To adjourn
Made at the end of a tournament
Yes
Majority
* Widely recognized to be an unnecessary motion. Most coaches and students agree that the floor is opened by the presiding officer, not by a motion coming from the chamber.
These motions are allowed at some Student Congress tournaments, depending on the region and the style of debate:
Motion
Notes
Second Required
Fraction of Chamber Required
To call for a roll call vote
Used to verify a voice vote. Also called "Division of the House"
Yes
1/5
To modify or withdraw a motion
To change or take back a motion that has already been recognized
Yes
2/3
To suspend the rules
To take an action against rules (such as adding an additional minute of questioning)
Yes
2/3
To appeal a decision of the chair
To force the chair to hear a motion
Yes
Majority (PO)
2/3 (Judge)
To extend questioning time*
To continue asking questions of the speaker
Yes
2/3
* While not officially disallowed by the NFL, motions to extend questioning time are typically either not heard or ignored entirely to avoid wasting time
These motions were once common but are no longer allowed by the official NFL Student Congress guidelines (as of the 2006-07 school year):
Motion
Notes
Second Required
Fraction of Chamber Required
For open chambers
If open chambers is passed, representatives may move freely and even leave the house in the middle of debate.
Yes
2/3
Yield to a two-part question
To ask two related questions in a row; made before questions are asked
No
Decision of speaker
Amendments
When an amendment is made, the P.O. first determines if it is germane, if the amendment changes the original intent of the bill it is not. The P.O. personally makes this decisions. If the amendment is germane the P.O. then calls for a "1/3 second." If one-third of the house affirms the motion, the amendment is read aloud by the P.O. Then, a motion must be made to start debate on the amendment (this motion is treated as main motion). If this motion is not made or the motion fails, the amendment is immediately voted on.
If the motion passes, the author of the amendment, or someone from his or her school, has the opportunity to give an authorship speech, and if none is made a sponsorship speech may be given by anyone. Debate on the amendment follows the exact same rules of order as debate on a bill. A motion to previous question may be made at any time to vote on the amendment, and an amendment may itself be amended. If the 1/3 second is not made the amendment is not read and debate continues as if the motion had not been made.
Main Motion
The term "main motion" refers to the general flow of debate. The progression of affirmative and negative speeches and cross examinations are considered to be part of the main motion. Main motion has some special rules attached to it. Most importantly, the following motions may not be made while main motion is in effect:
Rearranging the docket.
Taking a bill from the table.
The following motions may end main motion, but they can only be made after a negative speech, or after negative speeches are called for and none are offered:
Previous question.
A motion to table the current bill.
Once main motion has been made at the beginning of the session, it is assumed to remain in effect for all bills on the docket, even though it does not apply in between bills. It must be made manually if another motion, such as an amendment, is to be debated on.
Referring to a committee
When a motion to refer to a committee is made, the representative making the motion must indicate what the committee is to consider and for how long. If the motion passes, a representative from each school elects to be on the committee, and these students form the committee. The committee leaves the general area to deliberate in private and is called back when time expires. A committee member presents the conclusion to the rest of the house once all members are settled. At this point, the motion is complete; further action regarding the results must be taken with another motion.
History
Student Congress is a relatively new form of high school debate. Only in the last decade has it emerged as a widespread form of a debate. Yet the National Forensic League has held the National Student Congress since 1938. Many of the initial proponents of Congressional Debate saw it as an alternative to policy debate, which places a large amount of emphasis on speaking very quickly. Student Congress, on the other hand, emphasizes clear and persuasive communication to an audience of one's peers.
In past many countries have organized Student Congresses. There are many Sections and Student Branches who organized Student Congresses. Let us see two cases of Student Congresses organized by Sections of two different countries.
Pakistan have three Sections at Lahore, Karachi and Islamabad. The students of Karachi Section took the initiative to organize their Student Congress in Year 2007. They named the annual event as "Pakistan Student Congress (PSC)". The first of its congress, PSC 2007, was organized by Student Branch of National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences (FAST-NU) Karachi Campus under Karachi Section during July 67, 2007. Around 35 students from 9 different Student Branches participated in the event. Second PSC [PSC 2008] was organized by Student Branch of Government College University Faisalabad (GCUF) under Lahore Section during August 1617, 2008. Around 50 students from 12 different Student Branches participated in the event. Now third PSC been organized by Student Branch of National School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, NUST, Islamabad under Islamabad Section during May 2931, 2009.
Sections in India also organized annual Student Congresses. The title for their annual event is "All India Student Congress (AISC)". The third congress, AISC 2002 was organized by Kerala Section during July 2627, 2002. Delhi Section organized the AISC 2006 during June 2930, 2006. AISC 2007 was organized by Gujarat Section during September 2830, 2007.
Similarly, Sections individually organized their own Student Congresses. Karachi Section organized it by the title "Karachi Section Student Congress (KSSC)". KSSC 2008 was the first annual event of its kind, organied by Student Branch of Pakistan Navy Engineering College (PNEC) on December 26, 2008. It was the first ever section congress of Pakistan . Student members from 12 different universities of Karachi attended the event.
Kerala Section organized their Student Congress by the title "All Kerala Students Congress (AKSC)". AKSC 2008 was organized on August 3031, 2008. The upcoming AKSC 2009 will be organized on September 1113, 2009 by Student Branch of Vidya Academy of Science and Technology.
National
In the past decade, Student Congress has spread widely across the debate community. The first major tournament outside of NFL and NCFL nationals to host Student Congress was the Harvard University Tournament traditionally held near President's Day weekend in February. Other major tournaments which host congress competitions include The Barkley Forum for High Schools at Emory University, The University of Florida Blue Key, Wake Forest Early Bird, Yale, Princeton, the Villiger tournament in Philadelphia, the Glenbrooks tournament in Chicago, the Crestian Classic in Florida, Penn, George Mason, and Stanford. In addition, Congress is now one of the official events at the debate Tournament of Champions, hosted by the University of Kentucky. Students who achieve a high level of competitive success at other national tournaments qualify to compete at the TOC, which brings together some of the best congresspersons from across the nation.
References
^ National Catholic Forensic League Student Congress Manual, 1996 Edition, pg 7-8
^ National Forensic League Competition Events Guide, January 26, 2010, Pg 6-8
^ National Catholic Forensic League Student Congress Manual, 1996 Edition, pg 11
^ National Catholic Forensic League Student Congress Manual, 1996 Edition, pg 11
^ National Catholic Forensic League Student Congress Manual, 1996 Edition, pg 6
External links
NFL
NFL Student Congress Manual
NCFL
Student congress forms
Categories: Educational organizations | Debating | Forensics speech and debateHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from February 2010 | All articles lacking sources | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from February 2010
